1.4 HOMO SAPIENS ASTRONAUTICUS

Zero Gravity Facilityat John Glenn Research Center. A 140 meter tall structure allows scientist 5.18 seconds of zero gravity observation time

On March 23, 1995 the Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov descended from the Soyuz capsule after having spent 438 day on the Mir space station. His trip broke all previous records for time spent in space by a human. The cosmonaut was carried out of the capsule, barely able to maintain his balance upon finding himself subject to the Earth’s gravity. His body had mutated having adapted with surprising ease to an ecosystem which was totally foreign. Here on Earth it’s difficult to imagine what it must be like to live day after day with everything floating around you. Today more than seven hundred people have escaped our planet’s force of gravity, accumulating the equivalent of fifty-eight years of living in space. Through these experiences scientists and doctors at the various space agencies are stockpiling data on the physical and psychological effects of living in weightlessness. But above all they are betting on the possibility of achieving something that in past time would have been inconceivable: man’s permanent presence in space.

Homo sapiens have always dreamed of flying. All cultures have a number of myths involving flying divinities that magically manage to rise from the ground. Judeo-Christian culture is full of ascents, levitations, and other gravitational miracles in which humans go beyond the earthly plane. In other stories superstition predominates: those who dare to challenge the power of the gods and fly across the skies are severely punished, as with the fall of Icarus when he flew too close to the sun. The supernatural powers attributed to witches, including the power to fly, led to a repressive religious movement that resulted in the burning of thousands of suspect women. Nevertheless, ever since Newton discovered gravity, the desire to be free of this omnipotent invisible force has clearly become a part of modern society. Through the scientific method we were able to discover the laws of modern physics governing flight. Leonardo Da Vinci, the Wright brothers or Charles Lindberg are some of the many popular heroes who throughout recent centuries have served as guideposts along the runway to the skies. Today flying by plane has become an everyday affair and has changed our lives forever. Transoceanic flights allow us to have breakfast on one continent and dinner on another, to go from winter to summer in the same day, and cross a number of time zones in much less time that our bodies need to adapt to these changes. These types of spatial and temporal alterations are just the prelude to the profound changes inherent to space travel.

The origin of space exploration is undeniably linked to the history of aviation. However, it was the military organizations established by the superpowers during the Second World War that impelled humans toward the limits of the stratosphere. With the onset of the Cold War the military strategies of both the United States and the Soviet Union were transferred to the tabula rasa of outer space. It was in this context that in 1959, on both sides of the Atlantic, the first astronauts were selected from amongst the most brilliant military pilots of the day. Throughout the 60’s Nikita Khrushchev and John F. Kennedy increased the budgets of the emerging space agencies converting them into enormous bureaucratic machines, hiring legions of engineers and scientists in order to reach their final goal of colonizing outer space. In these early years dominating the area of space surrounding the planet was considered a geopolitical priority of utmost importance and the human habitation of space was seen as the necessary means to this end. History provides us with a good record of the landmark events of the space race. On April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin became the first human to escape from the force of Earth’s gravity. When the Vostok 1 rocket blasted off, the flight into space only lasted 12 minutes and 8 seconds. Once in orbit, Gagarin contacted the space centre in Kaliningrad to inform them of his condition and that of his ship. During the flight he tested the eating and drinking tubes, wrote down a few notes in a notebook that floated in front of him, sent out a message to the oppressed nations of the world, and stared at the Earth from his porthole. His great adventure lasted a total of 108 minutes in which he circled the planet once before returning to Earth. Gagarin described his first moments of weightlessness in the following way: “I felt wonderful when gravity began to disappear. Suddenly I discovered I could do things much more easily than before. It felt as if my hands and legs and my whole body no longer belonged to me. They weighed nothing. You can’t sit down and you can’t lie down; you just float in the cabin. Everything that isn’t tied down floats in the air and you stare at them as if in a dream”1.

The Russian victory was a hard blow for the Americans who were forced to acknowledge the Soviet Union’s superiority in matters of space technology. Finally, however, on February 20, 1962 an American went into orbit. John Glenn travelled at 28,000 kilometres per hour floating upside down in weightlessness aboard the Friendship 7 capsule. Alongside him, also floating, he had a world atlas which he consulted as he flew over the different regions of the planet. From this privileged vantage point he took pictures of the Earth, checked the systems on board, and enjoyed an unobstructed view of the Canary Islands and the African coast. Night found him over the Indian Ocean after having observed a brilliant orange-coloured sunset. A shaft of light followed the total darkness of the night on the horizon, the coming dawn. After three full orbits, Friendship 7 returned to Earth in a heart-stopping descent plagued by a number of technical difficulties that almost cost the astronaut his life.

fig. 1.2 Astronaut John Glenn in a state of weightlessness during flight of Frienship 7

fig. 1.3 John Glenn, one of the Mercury Seven astronauts, runs thought training exercise in the Mercury Procedures Trainer at the Space Task Group, Langley Field, Virginia. This simulator allowed the astronaut to practice both normal and emergency modes of systems operations.

Between Gagarin and Glenn there was another cosmonaut, German Titov, who on August 6, 1961, aboard the Vostok 2, orbited the Earth seventeen times in twenty-five hours and eighteen minutes. The main objective of this mission was to determine the effects of prolonged stays in space on the human body. Doctors, physiologists, and psychologists closely watched from Earth on a series of monitors the 26-year-old astronaut’s every movement. They saw him squeeze a tube, like that used for toothpaste, expelling puree that floated comically in front of his nose. After he swallowed the puree they saw him eat some bread, pâté, green peas, and meat and wash it down with black-currant juice. On his fifth orbit something unexpected happened: the doctors on the ground watched the cosmonaut throw up everything he had eaten. He was the first astronaut to get seasick in space. After resting for seven orbits (becoming the first human to sleep in space) his nausea disappeared but the ground crew were still notably concerned. No doubt they feared that having a sick astronaut on board could lead to a catastrophe. Future Vostok missions were scratched and a series of profound physiological and psychological tests were undertaken to discover and eliminate the negative effects of space travel on the human body.

fig. 1.4 Bell Lunar Landing Training Vehicle

fig. 1.5 Langley Research Center scientists use this plexiglass space station airlock test model to determine astronaut’s ability to move through an airlock with the restraint of a pressurized suit. The airlock prevents artificial atmosphere loss when an astronaut transfers from one spacecraft to another or from the interior to the exterior of the craft.

As a result of that mission space agencies began to come up with all sorts of training procedures to prepare future astronauts. Innumerable simulators reproducing conditions present during take-off and landing were built. Through these machines the future astronaut became familiar with all of the spaceship’s technological systems while at the same time learning to solve possible problems that might occur during the mission. Further simulations reproduced the conditions of altered gravity that the astronaut would experience during the trip. Centrifuges, multi-axes gyroscopes, neutral buoyancy tanks and parabolic flights were just some of the methods used to prepare the human body’s motor and sensory apparatus for the rigors of space flight. The force of gravity that humans experience on the ground is equivalent to 1 g. When a fighter pilot makes a loop in the sky he is pressed against his seat by a force that is seven times greater than his body weight, that is, 7 g. This type of g force is what all astronauts feel when they leave or enter the Earth’s atmosphere. When Apollo 11 returned from the Moon the capsule’s rate of fall was so great that its occupants were subjected to as much as 7 g pressing against their bodies. The astronauts had been trained to withstand such pressure in the centrifuges. Centrifuges have a mechanical arm that rotates a compartment at high speed following a circular path. Passengers inside the compartment feel their bodies pressed against the seats by the centrifugal force. The speed at which these centrifuges turn is increased progressively so that the occupant can get used to the overwhelming pressure crushing his body. From 9 g on the human body cannot move. Most people become unconscious when they reach 10 g but some manage to go beyond this barrier and reach 14 or 15 g. In these cases facial muscles become hideously deformed revealing to what point space travel can affect the human body.

fig. 1.6 Closed Loop Breathing System. An astronaut tests the pilot restraint and Closed-Loop Breathing System.

fig. 1.7 Multi-Axis Gimbal Rig in the Altitude Wind Tunnel. The AWT is used to train astronauts how to pull the space capsule out of a potentially dangerous spin and regain control of the craft.

Another important tool in training is the gyroscope. The prospective astronaut positions their body in the middle of two immense rings that turn 360 degrees in all directions. When the gyroscope tilts forward the “passenger’s” body is turned upside down. Likewise if the occupant moves sidewise the rings shift positions to find the new centre of gravity. These types of conditions help a person to learn to use body weight to navigate through the weightlessness of space. In a world where there’s no up and there’s no down it is essential that an astronaut not become disoriented. Many of these gyroscopes are designed to reproduce a situation where a capsule, losing its centre of balance, spins out of control. In such a situation the astronaut in training has to control waves of nausea while trying to stabilize the craft.

Water is the medium that best reproduces the microgravity of space. This is why neutral buoyancy tanks were created. These large pools of water are used to train the astronaut in carrying out an EVA (Extra Vehicular Activity); in other words, when an astronaut dons a spacesuit and leaves the spaceship in orbit to perform a task. Life-sized reproductions of spacecraft are placed in these pools so that the astronaut-in-training can learn to manoeuvre properly. However, perhaps the type of training most commonly used today by space agencies is parabolic flight. To this end NASA uses a KC-135 aircraft that executes a series of manoeuvres in the shape of a parabola. The plane first flies upward at high speed, then nose-dives abruptly, creating in the process a micro-gravity environment inside the cabin of the plane that lasts between 25 and 45 seconds. During this brief span of time the passengers float within the plane thus experiencing, momentarily, what they would feel in zero gravity. This is the closest one can come to weightlessness without leaving the Earth’s atmosphere. Finally the plane reaches the lowest point of the parabola and begins to rise again to repeat the cycle. Inside the cabin the occupants are crushed against the floor until the plane reaches a sufficient height to begin its plunge. A normal training flight executes between 30 and 40 cycles. During the final cycles many of the participants begin to suffer waves of nausea, giving the KC-135 its name “vomit comet”.

fig. 1.8 The neutral buoyancy tank can be found in the Marshall Space Center. This pool is 22.5 meters in diameter and 12 meters deep and allows astronauts to practice construction techniques in water, a medium that imitates the weightlessness of space.

fig. 1.9 Parabolic flights performed by NASA’s KC-135 create between 25 and 45 seconds of micro gravity allowing the future astronaut to become used to weightlessness.

Parabolic training is based on overwhelming the astronaut with physiological shock, provoking a rise in breaking point and allowing the trainee to become used to the demands of living afloat. After this lengthy training period the astronaut is finally ready to escape from gravity. Launch time has arrived, perhaps the most dangerous stage of any mission. Right underneath the astronauts’ fragile bodies an unbelievably powerful explosion takes place allowing the ship to liberate itself from the force of gravity. In today’s space shuttle launchings a total of 51 different motors are used in order to overcome the Earth’s gravity. So strong is Earth’s gravity that during the first two minutes of ascension the booster rockets consume 1,200,000 litres of liquid hydrogen and 400,000 litres of oxygen. At the moment of lift-off the astronauts inside the shuttle can hear explosions and the sound of pumps and fuel coursing through the fuel-lines.

When the rocket reaches a certain height the shuttle trembles and turns abruptly as it positions itself on the correct exit path. The astronauts are subject to 3 g in these early moments of the trip. They listen to the noise of the ship cutting through the air, a noise that suddenly disappears when they break the sound barrier. From this point on they will only hear the inner roar of the rockets. When the fuel for the first stage is used up, a tremendous explosion can be heard as the fuel tanks separate from the craft. At this point the orbital engines kick in.

fig. 1.10 The Return to Flight launch of the Space Shuttle Discovery and its five-man crew at 11:37 a.m. September 29, 1988, as Discovery embarked on a four-day, one-hour mission.

A few minutes later the astronauts will begin to feel micro-gravity’s effect. William Pouge describes it in the following way: “The first thing you notice when you go into space is an absence of pressure on your body. You may feel light-headed or giddy. After a half-hour or so, your face may feel flushed and you might feel a throbbing in your neck. As you move about, you may notice a strong sensation of spinning or tumbling every time you turn or nod your head. This makes some people uncomfortable or nauseated. You may also have a very ‘full feeling’ or stuffiness in your head. You may get a bad headache after a few hours, and this too may make you feel sick to your stomach. Most all of these symptoms will go away in a few days”2.

On the average it takes the body three days to get used to the effects of weightlessness. The congestion felt in the head is due to the flow of fluids to the upper portions of the body. Both the stomach and the intestines also move upwards, which accounts for the fact that astronauts develop a wasp waist. During the first few days the thinning of the legs and thighs, due to the flow of blood and other fluids towards the upper half of the body, becomes obvious. Microgravity also produces an increase in height of an average of three centimetres caused by the stretching of the spinal column. The facial muscles tend to float and the bone structure rises up making the astronauts’ faces look swollen. Bags appear under the eyes and the veins in the forehead and neck bulge out. Body posture also changes. In a state of relaxation the body tends to adopt a semi-erect position with the knees slightly bent, the head tilted forward, the shoulders raised and the arms floating at chest height with elbows slightly bent. This position is technically called “space neutral body posture”. Since the arms are raised it becomes difficult to work at waist level as is usually done at a desk on the ground. An astronaut has to forget about earth-bound motor coordination and try using new groups of muscles to carry out tasks as basic as getting dressed, washing, or even moving from one side of the ship or space station to the other. For example, in order to tie your shoelaces it becomes easier to bend your legs rather than to bend over and put your head down. To compensate for the tendency to adopt the “neutral space body posture” astronauts have to make much greater use of their abdominal muscles than on the ground.

Performing any daily activity is radically changed by zero gravity. Such basic things as going to the bathroom, cutting your hair, shaving, eating or sweating become truly complicated affairs in space. The toilet, technically referred to as the residual waste treatment compartment, is a funnel attached to a vacuum cleaner that absorbs the urine; solid wastes are deposited in a plastic bag that is replaced after each use. During defecation a seat belt must be used to keep the individual in position on the bowl. The first toilets were designed exclusively for men. With the incorporation of women into the shuttle missions NASA had to adapt the design of their bathrooms. After carrying out considerable research on how women urinate, NASA developed a unisex bathroom that has become the standard model used on all their space shuttles. Shaving or cutting hair necessitates the use of vacuums while eating and drinking is done in most cases by using tubes; even so, there are always tiny amounts of food waste and crumbs left floating that accumulate in the vents. Physical exercise also has its drawbacks: the sweat produced, which normally drips downward over the body, now builds up on the back forming a bag-like pool that has to be wiped off with a towel.

fig. 1.12 Showering on the Skylab. In deploying the shower facility the curtain is pulled up from the floor and attached to the ceiling. The water comes through a push-button showerhead and then is drawn off by a vacuum system.

One of the major effects on the human body produced by lack of gravity is the loss of muscle mass and bone density. The American astronaut David Wolf who spent four and a half months aboard the Mir space station found that as a result of his stay in space he had lost 40% of his muscle mass. It took him six months to recover his strength and a full year for his bone mass to return to normal. This type of loss is especially noted in the astronauts’ legs. The muscles atrophy since they are used less than on the ground. This in turn causes a decrease in the tension and compression the muscles have on the bones triggering a little understood degenerative process of the bone structure. The future mission to Mars programmed for the end of the decade, a trip that will take more than three years, can only be undertaken if this problem is solved. For the moment a healthy dose of daily physical exercise seems to be the best solution. Throughout his 438 days in orbit Polyakov exercised strenuously for two hours everyday, which helps explain how he was able to remain in space for such a long time. Shannon Lucid, the American woman who has spent the longest period of time in space (six months on board the Mir), also carried out strenuous daily gymnastic sessions. Currently techniques to produce artificial gravity that mimic the Earth’s gravity are being developed. MIT’s Man Vehicle Laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts has developed a machine shaped like a bed that spins at 23 revolutions per minute producing a gravitational force of 1 g, equal to that of the Earth’s. Short-range centrifuges like this might be used to provide future astronauts with their daily dose of gravity. Many experts feel that the degeneration involved in space flight will not exceed a 40% loss of bone mass, similar to what happens to patients who are permanently bed-ridden. Nevertheless there is no way of knowing for sure and the phenomenon remains one of the most problematic aspects of man’s permanent presence in space.

fig. 1.13 This photograph of the Space Shuttle Atlantis still connected to Russia’s Mir Space Station was taken by the Mir-19 crew in July 1995 during a leg of joint activities.

With construction of the International Space Station (ISS) underway, solving these problems has become especially urgent. The ISS, a complex project based on international cooperation (the participant countries are the United States, Russia, the member states of the UE, Canada, Japan, and Brazil), is a permanent platform that will allow humans to inhabit space. The first functional block was launched into orbit in 1998 and more than forty launches will be made to deliver the different modules needed to complete construction in 2006. When complete the station will weigh around four hundred tons and have one thousand two hundred cubic meters of usable space (the equivalent of two Boeing 747 passenger cabins) that up to seven astronauts could share comfortably. The station will have 33 built-in racks to carry out scientific experiments. Currently, energy for the station is provided by four solar panels measuring 34 x 12 meters extending out from the sides of the station like the wings of a bird. The ISS has been inhabited now for two years by three occupants who remain on board for periods of three months at a time. This small city floating in constant orbit around the Earth costs each U.S. citizen (the ones who contribute the most to the project) eight dollars a year, a considerable sum that serves to demonstrate the interest they have in keeping a small group of the planet’s population weightless.

The modular assembly process chosen for the station is directly related to the modular architecture of the seventies, most obviously to projects like Habitat produced by Israeli architect Moshe Safdie, who viewed prefabricated structures as a utopian solution to the housing crisis. Another Utopian of the time, Buckminster Fuller, patented the geodesic dome that used triangles as the basis for construction. Fuller considered his modules to be ready-to-use domestic bubbles that could be transported and easily adapted to any environment. These futuristic conceptions of domesticity, among many others that appeared in the sixties and seventies, anticipated the modular habitat of the ISS. They presaged the technological autonomy and the isolation of the space station. These architectural projects are not the result of a spontaneous dialogue with the immediate environment; rather they deny all chance of such dialogue. With the added twist of building in zero gravity, a form of functional architecture is born that completely transforms the natural order of things: there is no up, no down, and walls can be both floor and ceiling at the same time. A weightless body needs a weightless house. This latter point can be seen as a profound contradiction if we keep in mind that a home symbolically implies the putting down of roots. But maybe this idea shouldn’t be so surprising for a culture, Western culture, in which everything is in constant motion.

The ISS will be an interesting environment in which to study how our notion of domesticity changes or adapts to weightlessness, and to see whether or not the gender roles present in so many homes on Earth remain in place. There are several emotional problems that might appear from living on the space station. Being confined in such a reduced space for such long periods of time with the same group of people could lead to important personal and emotional conflicts amongst the crew. The Russians studied this problem but without any clear results. The eight months of confinement a group of international volunteers were subjected to resulted in the following: the two Russian couldn’t keep from sobbing at New Year’s, the female Canadian member protested loudly because she was forcibly kissed by one of the Russians, and the Japanese volunteer asked to be released from the experiment due to all the commotion. What seems to be clear is that humans need order and variety, two things which nature offers us on Earth. In space, however, astronauts suffer from too much order and too little variety. Boredom and anxiety are feelings that almost all astronauts experience at some point during their stay in space. There is, however, an additional problem: each emotion is reflected in sensations or expressions experienced by the body, but these bodily manifestations are seriously affected by micro-gravity. Stamping your feet or slamming your fist in an expression of anger is impossible in zero gravity. In his essay “Sentic Space Travel”, Manfred Clynes contemplates these emotional registers: he points out how happiness, for example, is accompanied bodily by a feeling of lightness, a feeling of levitation expressed by leaping or jumping up into the air. The elation felt in experiencing micro-gravity could be caused by its similarity to the feeling of levitation associated with happiness. Sadness, on the other hand, is characterized by a feeling of heaviness, a collapsing of the body, especially the arms. “The question is then to what extent these inherent body images will be felt as missing in space travel, and to what extent they might be altered or retrained. If there’s no gravity, how can the heaviness of grief find its expression? Will it no longer be heavy, or will it simply not be possible to express and even experience grief?”3. We haven’t been in orbit long enough to be able to answer this question yet, but what it is pointing at is a possible re-writing of the emotional nature of human beings once freed from the chains of gravity.

fig. 1.14 Back dropped against clouds 130 nautical miles below, astronaut Mark C. Lee floats without tethers as he tests the new Simplified Aid for EVA rescue (SAFER) system, 1994.

In his article Neuropolitics, the ever-scathing Timothy Leary writes: “We live at the bottom of a 40 mile gravity well. It has taken all of four and a half billion years of terrestrial evolution to produce nervous systems capable of devising a technology with which to climb out of that well and launch migratory colonization cylinders into space. There is no reason for us to ever climb back down into such a planetary hole again. Our evolutionary mission is to fly free through timespace. The original sin of ‘Genesis’ is gravity: the fall”4.

Even though we may not be amongst that elite group of 700 people who have escaped the Earth’s gravity, all of us in a way have become astronauts. There is an irrepressible collective desire to move away from the planet, to abandon the ecosystem where we originated and evolved, to fly towards the endless cosmic abyss. In his book, Technology as Symptom and Dream, Robert Romanyshyn explores the collective need to leave the Earth behind. Romanyshyn sees the origin of the escape in the Renaissance, when the Western world rewrote its role in depth. It is in this period that science begins to look at the human body in a radically different way. Beginning with Vesalius and his anatomical examinations, the body is dissected and opened for medical inspection. The body becomes a machine with pumps and rods, a robot from which the subject has vanished. This vision of the human body as a machine prepares us for space travel; the body becomes a mere shell, one from which the essence has escaped. The human organism is seen as a sack full of organs, a foul-smelling container, dark and clumsy, and from which we wish to escape as soon as possible. We want to fly out of our bodies, rise up weightless, ethereal, and in passing, feel that we are immortal.

fig. 1.15 Astronaut, and Lunar Module pilot, Schweickart stands on the Lunar module “Spider’s” porch during his extravehicular activity during an Earth orbital mission. This photograph was taken from inside the Lunar Module “Spider”.

There is a profound existential conflict inherent to our lives: we are eager to fly away from our bodily reality, but still subject to our bodies clumsily anchored to the ground. This contradiction appears in different earth-bound social phenomena and cultural manifestations that exemplify our deep desire to fly. Think for a minute about cinema, Internet and television that transport us to fantasy-filled worlds and help us escape from our everyday mundane reality. Consider how we eagerly devour the fantastic simulations in theme parks, IMAX films and digital videogames, all of which are social practices that seem to swallow up the spectator, carrying him or her far away from immediate reality. We are constantly looking to escape from the specific gravity of our existence, from the gravity of our lives, longing for the almost erotic freedom of a weightless life that offers us the promise of liberation from bodily pain.

“The astronautic body is more of a new twist in the spiral of evolution. It is the body turned inside-out, re-dressed in terms of technical functions on the way to being discarded. It is a first step, perhaps, on a path toward ‘exosomatic’ evolution, a temporary bridge which initially joins us and machine, and wires us to (as) a computer”5 writes Romanyshyn. An astronaut’s body is an electric body, the body of a cyborg connected to a series of measuring systems, an organism depending on complex technical mechanisms to survive. But this new evolutionary direction in human beings could signify a return to our origins. Francis Crick, the noted scientist who along with James Watson codified the structure of DNA, postulates in his book Life Itself that the genetic code for human beings could only have come from the stars. If that assumption is correct, then the message codified within our genes leads us back to the stars. Our bodies therefore are programmed by our DNA to leave the planet; we may be currently witnessing a new evolutionary phase with a cosmic purpose.
We have become neurogenetic robots programmed to escape from the Earth, a planet that we just happen to be destroying from an ecological point of view. Indeed, once we accept the viability of the space project, the destruction of the Earth doesn’t seem as catastrophic. The possibility of leaving the Earth mitigates our fears about the destruction of the planet. Psychologically we have abandoned the Earth.

In breaking away from gravity, we have broken much more than just a type of physical subjugation. We have radically altered our relationship to one of the basic forces of daily life. We are no longer continually subject to the invisible force that links us to earth, that holds us down. New identities are emerging from this weightless body. This current project tries to define and shed some light on this new unbound individual, this floating being that has forever lost his and her anchoring in Earthly reality.

Notes
1. Burrows, William E.: This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age, The Modern Library, New York, 1998, p. 312
2. Pogue, William R.: How Do You Go to the Bathroom in Space?, Tom Doherty Associates, New York, 1999, p. 22
3. Clynes, Manfred E.: “Cyborg II, Sentic Space Travel”, in The Cyborg Handbook, edited by Chris Hables Gray, Heidi Figueroa-Sarriera and Steven Mentor, Routledge, New York, 1995, p. 40
4. Leary, Timothy: Neuropolitics, Starseed/Peace Press, Los Angeles, 1977, pp. 70-71
5. Romanyshyn, Robert D.: Technology as Symptom and Dream, Routledge, New York, 1989, p. 18